In this way, in the departure from Egypt to Canaan, Yahweh would have appeared before Mos… Of or related to a religious system characterized by belief in the existence of a single deity. In this context, the god of Israel is a type of tribal deity, that although was worshipped alone, did not explicitly exclude the existence of other gods, who were not relevant to them. Tanakh. Some scholars say that monolarty beliefs started around 1400BCE and monotheism began sometime around 550 BCE(possibly earlier). The major source of monotheism in the modern Western World is the narrative of the Hebrew Bible, the source of Judaism, which was created from the 13th century BCE to the 4th century BCE. Numerical Monotheism and Philosophical Monotheism. One God (monotheism), often called HaShem—Hebrew for 'The Name', or Adonai— 'The Lord'. The lower gods or angels of the Hebrew Bible differ from those of Canaanite, Mesopotamian, and Greek literature because they never successfully challenge Yhwh. Similar concepts in practice and somewhat related include: monolatry, which is an individual's acceptance that other gods exist but only one Deity is … This belief was evolving and then based on a monotheistic religion, based on the existence of a single God, creator of the world and men. The book of Job explores the nature of true piety and the problem of innocent suffering. The notion that monotheism evolved is a product of 19th century philosophy. Freud recasts Moses not as a born Hebrew raised in the pharaoh’s palace (as per the Book of Exodus), but as an Egyptian. For instance, there are five alternate names for the Egyptian god Osiris: Osiris, Wennofer, Khent-amentiu, Lord of Abydos and nuter (god). Faith and Skepticism in Monotheism In many forms of monotheism, the belief in God is based on faith rather than proof. 8. A more neutral alternative to "Old Testament.". Judaism: Judaism is one of the world's major religions. After all, isn’t one of the great contributions of biblical Israel to civilization the concept of monotheism? The Hebrew Bible refers to many heavenly creatures, calling them “gods” (Gen 6:2; Ps 29:1, Ps 82:6, Ps 86:8, Ps 89:7; Job 1:6), “angels” (Num 20:16; 2Sam 24:16; 1Kgs 13:18; Zech 1:11-12; Ps 78:49; Job 33:23), and “the assembly of holy ones” (Ps 89:5). Monotheism - Monotheism - Monotheism in world religions: There may be some reason to speak of the conception of God found in the Hebrew Scriptures as monolatry rather than as monotheism, because the existence of other gods is seldom explicitly denied and many times even acknowledged. God is holy. See more. Monotheism, Not Monolatry. The Hebrew Bible provides ample evidence that many Israelites believed in the existence of multiple deities. Scripture is a witness to the Hebrew tendency toward apostasy--a fact which led Jewish prophets of old to express anger and anguish over the spiritual condition of Israel. Explanation: The various names of God are important keys to understanding some of his attributes. The ancient Israelites spoke a Semitic language called Hebrew. When it comes to beliefs, Judaism is best known for its "ethical monotheism," which is the belief in one God who demands ethical behavior of humans. "Moreh" would signify "teacher," from "horah," (to teach), because the devout could hear the oak tree speak through the rustling of its leaves--as with the oaks of Zeus at Dodona.4 Yet the text says nothing about trees speaking to Abram; nor does it imply that he ever expected to receive messages from that, or any other tree. 3. The list goes on and on to include multiple names for places and objects.13 In more recent literature, the Koran parallels the Bible's alternating of names. Recent findings in comparative history and anthropology indicate that: Most, if not all, pre-literary people have a belief in a Supreme Being which most scholars call a High God to distinguish him from the lesser divinities....It is interesting to note that among some of the most backward peoples of the world clear and high ideas of God are to be found. It was founded in what is now the nation of Israel. According to Wellhausen, the "pre-prophetic" faith of Israel (i.e. It is unlikely that Akhenaton's unsuccessful attempt became the source of Israel's monotheism. Polytheistic tendencies continued during his reign and returned to prominence after his death. "15 The patriarchs knew both names, but the full implication of God's character implicit in the name YHVH had not yet been revealed to them. Characteristic of a deity (a god or goddess). Of course everyone now recognizes that monotheism is the current belief of those subscribing to the Jewish and Christians Bibles. Monotheists believe that this omnipotent, omniscient, ultimately good being is the creative ground for everything else. These other beings may include some who live in heaven and who are, in the normal course of events, immortal; but they are subservient to the unique supreme being, unless that being voluntarily relinquishes a measure of control. The patriarchs worshipped their gods under various rubrics such as El Shaddai. ed. People who study a text from historical, literary, theological and other angles. Kenneth A. In a number of publications subsequently, I have sought to clarify and articulate my views further, also engaging Hebrew Bible and at Qumran is transparent, but does not justify the conclusion that either the biblical writers or Second Temple Jewish thinkers would have thought YHWH one among equals. Yet, similarities between the ancient "Hymn to Aton" and Psalm 104 still raise questions. cil texts in the Hebrew Bible as a threat to monotheism. These themes, initially developed through oral literature, were soon compiled into the written record of the Hebrew Scriptures; in such fashion did the ancient Hebrews bequeath this novel theology to the world. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other ... in the early Hebrew history, the male leader of an extended ... and in the later Roman Empire,the bishop of the most important Christian cities. People, places, things and single deities were often referred to by more than one name. The supreme male divinity of Mesopotamia and Canaan. 1957; orig. It is often argued that the Hebrew Bible takes a position not of monotheism, but of henotheism. However, they reject the belief, common among monotheists … Test. "17 Despite Akhenaton's mandate, Egyptians continued to worship numerous manifestations of the sun. Sign up for our monthly updates and special announcements. Flashcards. The philosopher Hermann Cohen (1842-1918) and the biblical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann (1889-1963) proposed a different and more useful definition. Popular Jewish writer, Herman Wouk, rightly remarks, "The main thing, probably, was that in 1875 evolution was in the air.... A theory that imposed evolution on Old Testament religion radiated chic and excitement, even though it stood the Bible on its head."3. Monotheism, then, is the belief that one supreme being exists whose will is sovereign over all other beings. Started before Freud escaped Nazi-occupied Vienna, Moses and Monotheism is a radical re-reading of the life, origins, and … In antiquity, Jews stopped saying the name as a sign of reverence. 1978; orig. According to this approach, monotheism did not appear until the days of the prophets in the 8th century B.C.E. Zoroastrianism is therefore disqualified as an influence. The nucleus of the Hebrew society was the patriarchal family, in which the father was the highest authority. God's name in Hebrew is YHWH, which simply - but significantly - means "I am." 11-48 in Sir Norman Anderson, ed., The World's Religions, (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 4th rev. Abraham lived at least 3,700 years ago in kan’aan is now in Israel. It emerged as the descendant of ancient Israelite Religion, and is characterized by monotheism and an adherence to the laws present in the Written Torah (the Bible) and the Oral Torah (Talmudic/Rabbinic tradition). The Torah is the religion's most sacred text … This includes many of the well-known faiths including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. It was founded in what is now the nation of Israel. No scholar dates the rise of Israel's monotheism that late. Yet there is disagreement as to the origin of Jewish monotheism. Since biblical Hebrew generally continued to use words for “gods” (elim and elohim) to refer to those supernatural beings, whose existence was not denied, we cannot speak of monotheism in the etymological sense of the word but only in the practical, de facto sense just described. 5Let the heavens praise your wonders, O Lord,your faithfulness in the assembly of the holy ones. Started before Freud escaped Nazi-occupied Vienna, Moses and Monotheism is a radical re-reading of the life, origins, and religious leadership of Moses. A belief of the Covenant (God's agreement w/ chosen people of Israel) A belief in the Ten Commandments (biblical principles) Monotheism: A belief in one God. In the early Mosaic era, the possibi… One God (monotheism), often called HaShem—Hebrew for 'The Name', or Adonai— 'The Lord'. I appreciate scholars who point out traces of the divine council in the Hebrew Bible, but I suspect that Genesis 1 was authored late enough relative to the development of Jewish monotheism that “our” image is simply a reflection of the royal plurality of referring to a singular god by the plural Elohim. prophets. A category of polytheism including Hinduism and Judaism, the worship of the Greek pantheon and the worship of the biblical God, is so large as to be meaningless. Eminent scholar William Foxwell Albright referred to YHVH as "the name given his God by Moses" (though not in specific reference to Exodus 6:3).11 Albright spoke of "the identification of Yahweh with the God of the Fathers. During the sacking, the temple of Yahweh was completely destroyed. The garden of Eden story has echoes of a once-powerful mother goddess and her fertility symbols, the serpent and the tree of life; she is demoted to a human woman who becomes the “mother of all living.”. sacred or religious writing of a religion. The Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten may have been the first monotheist, but his espousal of the sun-god Aten was atypical of ancient Egyptian religion. See Marvin Tate, Psalms 51–100 (WBC 20; Dallas, TX: Word, 2002), xxv. A Babylonian deity who becomes the chief god of the Babylonian pantheon, as recounted in the Babylonian creation story Enuma Elish. Even without the conclusive discrepancy in dating, Zoroastrianism's tendency towards dualism (belief in two independent powers standing in opposition) is a far cry from the monotheism of biblical faith. It is a faith implanted in the core of our souls, which endures also when logic ceases to function and reason is rendered impotent. The BEST: Moses and Monotheism by Sigmund Freud Reviewed by Harvey Belovski. The famed 12th century Jewish poet and philosopher Judah Halevi recognized this when he defined Elohim as the divine name in general, whereas Adonay specified the God of revelation and covenant. Archer, 144. teeshabrown16. 1950), 38. For Hebrew people, Yahweh would have chosen them by letting them know the fundamental truths of religion. scripture. The major literary tradition bearing witness to monotheism began in the Hebrew Bible. Monotheism. In addition to adopting the beliefs of general monotheism, deists also adopt the belief that the single existing god is personal in nature and transcendent from the created universe. The "monotheism" of Akhenaton was the result of a human instinct to believe in one God. A theology in which no one deity has ultimate power over all aspects of the universe is polytheistic (even if that theology knows only one deity); a theology in which one deity has supreme power is monotheistic (even if it knows other heavenly beings). • Believe that they descended from Abraham and Sarah, the first people to worship Yahweh (God). Kaufmann and Albright argued that the explicit statements about monotheism do not tell the whole story. Learn. Hebrew Monotheism qWhile aspects of monotheism emerged in a variety of places and times including in Egypt under the Pharaoh Amenhotep IV in the mid-1300s BCE and in Persia after growth of Zoroastrianism in the 600s BCE, monotheism reached its most complete and enduring form among the Hebrews starting around 1250 BCE. All support for Wellhausen's theory of reconstruction crumbled with advances in modern archaeology and comparative ancient history. Embellished with its post-Exilic reconstruction, the Hebrew Bible states that the religion of Israel and Judah was always monotheism, but, as previously noted, this is not the case. Terms in this set (17) People of the books. Beliefs • There is one God, the Father (1 Corinthians 8:6), the one God of the creed of Israel affirmed by Jesus Christ (Mark 12:28ff). Founder: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses: Zarathustra Haechataspa Spitama or Zoroaster (Greek) or Zartosht (Parsi) The Hebrew religion gave us monotheism; it gave us the concept of rule by law; it gave us the concept that the divine works its purpose on human history through human events; it gave us the concept of the covenant, that the one god has a special relationship to a community of humans above all others. It will surprise some readers to learn that biblical scholars debate whether the ancient Israelites and the Hebrew Bible they produced were monotheistic. Another viewpoint suggests a type of "quantum leap" in Israel's religion. God is the one True Creator. Monotheism is a rational truth, supported by irrefutable arguments.” That may be so, Maimonides is saying, but the Jew’s denial of alien gods is more than an irrefutable philosophy. 2the sons of God saw that they were fair; and they took wives for themselves of all that they chose. The potpourri of primitive or sophisticated polytheism, pantheism and pick-your-own-theism appears to be a devolution from primal monotheism. Dr. Hoffmeier, coming from a secular perspective, is puzzled by how Akhenaten could have so suddenly made such a radical change in his religious beliefs. PLAY. In Gen 3:22, Yhwh seems anxious that humans might claim divine power for themselves, which differs, however, from the power Yhwh voluntarily cedes to humans. In later times—beginning in the 6th century bce and continuing into the early centuries of the Common Era—Jewish monotheism developed in the same direction as did Christianity and also later Islam under the influence of Greek philosophy and became monotheistic in the strict sense of the word, affirming the one God for all persons everywhere. In a second theory, Moses is seen as the originator or discoverer of the concept of one God. No doubt this refers to the "solar monotheism" of King Akhenaton. Israelite Monotheism All the entities the Hebrew Bible called elohim have one thing in common: they all inhabit the nonhuman (heavenly) realm. Spell. During Ancient Israel, “Monotheism (with its denial of the existence… The ability to act without outside constraint; within theology, the idea that humans can choose their actions freely, despite an omnipotent God. Monotheism, then, is the belief that one supreme being exists whose will is sovereign over all other beings. Intertwined with the multi-coloured fabric of change are lines of continuity...that show remarkable consistency from early epochs."8. In contrast, some believe in multiple gods and these are known as polytheistic religions. 18. 1974; orig. How did monotheism start? Alleged traces of primitive monotheism were located in the Assyrian deities Ashur and Marduk, and Hebrew YHWH. What distinguishes the Hebrew Bible from other ancient Near Eastern texts is not that it denies that Marduk and Baal exist—it doesn’t—but that it insists that Yhwh, the God of Israel, is qualitatively different from all other deities: Yhwh is infinitely more powerful. A supernatural ability granted to a human by a deity, or exhibited by the deity. The passionate importance given to the proclamation of Yahweh as the … His most recent book is Revelation and Authority: Sinai in Jewish Scripture and Tradition (Yale University Press, 2015). Baal and Marduk, Zeus and Kronos toil in order to attain an exalted status; Yhwh had that status to begin with and retains it with ease. See more. EU residents: Sorry but we can't take your info on this site. The monotheistic religions include the world's largest religions: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Sikhism. EU contact options ›. Knowing something about ancient Near Eastern history and culture will deepen the historical understanding of the documents that compose the Hebrew Bible. The scenario of evolutionary development in the Jewish faith is absolutely unsubstantiated. 1940), 258-59. Hebrew is regarded as the spoken language of ancient Israel but is largely replaced by Aramaic in the Persian period. (Moody Press Chicago, rev. When it comes to beliefs, Judaism is best known for its "ethical monotheism," which is the belief in one God who demands ethical behavior of humans. Write. The broader definition of monotheism characterizes the traditions of Bábism, the Baháʼí Faith, Balinese Hinduism, Cao Dai (Caodaiism), Cheondoism (Cheondogyo), Christianity, Deism, Druze faith, Eckankar, Hindu sects such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, Islam, Judaism, Mandaeism, Rastafari, Seicho no Ie, Sikhism, Tengrism (Tangrism), Tenrikyo (Tenriism), Yazidism, and Zoroastrianism, and elements of … He transcends life and death. people who based their beliefs on teachings that preserved in written form. Benjamin Sommer is professor of Bible at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. "7, Kenneth Kitchen, Egyptologist at the University of Liverpool in England, offers these remarks: "Unilinear evolution is a fallacy. Aren’t the Israelites famous for believing in only one God? that of the patriarchal and Mosaic periods) was the thesis, and the later "prophetic" faith was the antithesis. Benjamin Sommer, "Monotheism in the Hebrew Bible", n.p. A religious system characterized by belief in the existence of a single deity. Deism is actually a form of monotheism, but it remains distinct enough in character and development to justify discussing separately. It is not the number of divine beings that matters to monotheism but the relationships between them. 1. Nathan MacDonald on whether Asherah is a goddess or cultic object. Catholic and Orthodox Christians believe in and pray to saints residing in heaven—humans who died without any long-term effect on their continued existence. ©Copyright 2019, Society of Biblical Literature We see no evidence to indicate that Israel invented, discovered or borrowed monotheism. 7a God feared in the council of the holy ones,great and awesome above all that are around him? Zoroaster's dates are somewhere between 660 and 541 B.C.E.--well over half a millennium after Moses. One God. Essentials of the Hebrew Faith. Christianity • Beliefs: • Christianity takes its name from the Greek word ‘Christ’, meaning Anointed One, whom Christians believe was Jesus, the son of God. Its most basic and fundamental beliefs arise from the Hebrew Bible, and in particular, from the Torah. These other beings may include some who live in heaven and who are, in the normal course of events, immortal; but they are subservient to the unique supreme being, unless that being voluntarily relinquishes a measure of control. Hebrew Monotheism qWhile aspects of monotheism emerged in a variety of places and times including in Egypt under the Pharaoh Amenhotep IV in the mid-1300s BCE and in Persia after growth of Zoroastrianism in the 600s BCE, monotheism reached its most complete and enduring form among the Hebrews starting around 1250 BCE. Closer inspection of material from other ancient cultures removes the legs from this table as well. Judaism may have received influences from various non … Learn Hebrew Monotheism with free interactive flashcards. Whilst Christianity is usually considered a monotheistic religion, but there are some critics who think that it is a matter of debate how "monotheistic" Christianity really is. The other example was the Egyptian sun god. This single limitation is self-imposed, whereas the limitations on gods in polytheistic texts often result from forces beyond themselves. I appreciate scholars who point out traces of the divine council in the Hebrew Bible, but I suspect that Genesis 1 was authored late enough relative to the development of Jewish monotheism that “our” image is simply a reflection of the royal plurality of referring to a singular god by the plural Elohim. (Gen 15:7) In such a respect, the god of Israel is not God alone, but the god who was worshipped by Abraham's clan. In particular, many forms of Christianity and Islam (though not all!) Monotheism in Schmidt's view is the "natural" form of theism, which was later overlaid and "degraded" by polytheism [2] after deceased ancestors' veneration became worship, and personified natural forces became worshipped as well as gods. The "priestly" faith (which Wellhausen considered normative Judaism) was the synthesis. but with whom every Jew can have an individual and personal relationship. In the beginning, the Hebrews lived in family groups or clans directed by the oldest, the patriarch, who administered justice, directed war and religious rites. Later, these gods were considered one and the same God. The word monotheism was coined in the 17th century and is often understood as the belief in one god with a denial of the existence of other deities.Â. This author has found no reasonable explanation other than that given by the Tanakh; Israel's monotheism was received as a direct revelation from God. The Hebrews and Monotheism. This is the case for polytheistic Israelites whom biblical prophets criticize for worshipping other gods; but even some authors of the biblical texts seem polytheistic. One God. After all, the so-called monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam exhibit belief in angels—beings who reside in heaven and who do not normally die. Polytheism was then followed by totemism, "the belief that the members of a clan or tribe are related to some group of plants or animals"2 as descendants. The correct answers are A, D, E and F. Basic beliefs or practices of Judaism include:-practicing monotheism.-obeying the Ten Commandments.-reading and understanding the Torah.-valuing good behavior more than performing ceremonies. It wasn’t until the 19th century however, that Julius Wellhausen developed and popularized the theory. 25 Common Beliefs of the Hebrew Israelites. The examples above were suggested in a letter to the editor of ISSUES, and they demonstrate the lack of evidence for the "borrowing" theory. Neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia, the two civilizations where Abraham and Moses were nurtured, show any evidence of totemmistic belief. Critical to the development of Hebrew monotheism was the sacking of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and the subsequent Babylonian captivity. 1975; orig. What modern scholarship shows most of all, however, is that the question of monotheism is much more complex, and much more interesting, than most people suppose. monotheism. Herman Wouk, This Is My God, (Doubleday & Co.: Garden City, 1961), 316. He was not a pragmatic plagiarizer either. Biblical authors reduce Baal to a generic term for “other gods” and accuse the chosen people of honoring him, in order to vindicate Yahweh for disasters. Founder: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses: Zarathustra Haechataspa Spitama or Zoroaster (Greek) or Zartosht (Parsi) The religion and culture of Jews. "12 He believed Moses invented the worship of YHVH, or as he put it, "Yahwism." ed. STUDY. The beliefs and practices of ancient religions were just as varied as the beliefs and practices of modern-day religions. Beliefs in the existence of the only one god. ed. W. Schmidt of Vienna built up a whole theory on it: that the original religious concept of man in his primeval state was monotheism which later became corrupted into polytheism.9, Among the "primitive" peoples who believe in a supreme High God, we find such examples as "the Bushmen of the Kalahari, the Pygmy tribes of the Congo and the tribes of Tierra del Fuego."10. Monotheism (from the Greek monos "only", and theos "god") is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection. He is the Elohim(God) of Israel. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and Old Testament, (InterVarsity Press: Downers Grove, 1966), 113-14. Abraham Kuenen, in his seminal work referenced below and published in 1869-1870, … Barbara Mertz, Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphics: A Popular History of Ancient Egypt, (Dodd, Mead & Co.: New York, rev. əm / the belief that there is only one God (Definition of monotheism from the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University Press) Those who follow a monotheistic religion believe in the existence of a single god. Monotheism (from the Greek monos "only", and theos "god") is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection. When a person believes in God they are called a "theist". The ancient Hebrew religion, promulgated by Moses in the name of Jehovah (Jahweh), was an impressive form of Monotheism. Choose from 38 different sets of Hebrew Monotheism flashcards on Quizlet. Second, Wellhausen applied certain aspects of Darwinism to the area of religion. Many Canaanite, Mesopotamian, and Greek texts narrate conflicts in which a high god is seriously threatened or overthrown. He was the humble worshipper of the God who is no invention or discovery, but who is real and who created us...the God who not only expects certain things of us, but who also invites us into a relationship with himself. Judges 11:24 is offer cited to support this theory. What Is the Function of Place in the Hebrew Bible? The first evidence of monotheism emerges from Egypt in the 14th century BCE (1353-1336 BC) during the reign of Akhenaten. Abraham, the first patriarch in the book of Genesis, is a figure of memory, legend, and faith. The tradition continued throughout the Old Testament , and carried over into the foundational writings of Christianity , the the New Testament , and also into Islam 's Qur'an . That it was Divinely revealed is the unmistakable teaching of Holy Scripture , particularly of Exodus and the following books which treat explicitly of … The main characteristic of Hebrew monotheism was its belief in the existence of its own god, Yahweh, whose essence was highly spiritual, indefinable and unrepresentable. The king was known to have worshiped Aten, the sun disk god (Figure 1). As to faith in the God of the Shema, Moses was not a brilliant innovator, nor was he a bold adventurer. The Hebrew religion, ... is that Judaism has a holy text to preserve its beliefs, laws and history. He transcends life and death. This exception results from Yhwh’s own decision to create beings with the ability to choose for good and for ill. Judaism • Beliefs: • Jews believe that there is a single God who not only created the universe. ed. Elohim refers to God in his character of Creator and Lord of mankind, whereas YHVH generally is used where God's covenant relationship is implied. The God of ethical monotheism is the God first revealed to the world in the Hebrew Bible. In Hegel's system, one factor--the thesis--interacts with another--the antithesis--to produce something newer and higher--the synthesis. If you don't see an email from us in the next few weeks, please check your spam or junk folder in your email account to make sure our messages have not been filtered. 4. The most effective challenges to this view were those of the Israeli biblical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann and the American archaeologist W. F. Albright. Mystery shared by Jews and Christians Hebrew part of the Hebrew religion,... that... '', n.p limitation is self-imposed, whereas the limitations on gods in polytheistic theologies, the first monotheist but... And will exist forever totemism, and Satan also came among them patriarchs worshipped their gods various! Was mentioned, monotheistic underpinnings seem to exist even among modern primitive peoples: the:... In a local tribal deity and does not recognize that other deities exist often referred by... From Zoroastrianism see also Alan Richard Schulman points out, ``... this not... Returned to prominence after his death consistency from early epochs. `` Yhwh be thwarted: by human will. The Old Testament Introduction ancient Israelites spoke a Semitic language called Hebrew as... To recognize the lost original pronunciation or to forces stronger than themselves Israeli... From 38 different sets of Hebrew monotheism was the sacking of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and the biblical scholar Kaufmann. In one area can Yhwh be thwarted: by human free will early! Change are lines of continuity... that show remarkable consistency from early epochs... The Torah ( Jewish holy Scripture ) is the elohim ( God ) located in the Persian period domain! Water or swaying tree boughs. we will possess it. 11-48 in Norman. 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